Rethinking the Nature of Religion and its Relationship with Society
Institute for Global Civilization
November, 2014
The momentum of globalization, accelerating since the second half of the 20th century, has brought about perspicuous and profound changes in social and cultural life across the globe. The resurgence of religion has provoked a new interest among academics and the public alike in re-examining a number of topics related to religion, including the concept, nature and social functions of religion, as well as religion’s relations with science and civilization.
The aim of this paper is to present the elements of a framework within which the transformation of religion in the contemporary world can be studied and discussed by people of different backgrounds. While inspired by the sacred writings and practical experience of the Bahá’í Faith, our purpose is not to prove any specific religious doctrine. Rather, we wish to stimulate a discourse on the role of religion in the contemporary world, exploring how religion can contribute to the development of a healthy, progressive and united society, while minimizing destructive expressions of religious fervour.
After millennia of evolution, the diverse social and cultural systems of our planet are collectively experiencing a critical moment of global integration, suddenly thrown into a state of interdependence. Accompanying this unprecedented process is the vast increase in the capacities of individuals and societies. Now it is safe to say that a global civilization is emerging. However, the prospect of global integration is darkened by seemingly insurmountable crises of various kinds. First and foremost, even a casual observer of the current state of affairs of the world cannot fail to recognize the embarrassing co-existence of extremes of wealth and poverty within and among nations, a product of an economic reconfiguration and integration that has swept through virtually every corner of the entire world. Political and social unrest, often with accompanying armed domestic and international conflicts, constitutes another prominent feature of the world today. For those genuinely concerned with the future of human civilization, however, the most worrying sign is none other than the spiritual bankruptcy and moral breakdown easily recognizable everywhere in the world.
Ominous signs abound that indicate that human civilization has sunken into a deep spiritual crisis. In the spheres of development and governance, the cherished hope for world peace and prosperity will surely be hard to attain unless governments and peoples of the world move beyond a materialistic and merely economic approach toward the issues at hand. If the logic of homo economicus continues to prevail, and science and technology are uncritically regarded as the sole effective means to solve the problems of the world, the very sustainability of the natural environment vital for continued existence of the human species is cast into serious doubt. The severity of challenges facing humanity today has awakened the awareness of a growing number of individuals and groups that unless a resuscitation of moral and spiritual life is set in motion to initiate a profound change in our thinking, way of life and social organization, the emergent global society will surely be unsustainable, devoid of a dynamic balance between the material and spiritual dimensions of human existence.
The spiritual dimension of human life has, throughout history, been the core concern of religion. The religious traditions of the world, representing a common heritage of humankind, have been rich sources of ethical teachings and spiritual principles. Therefore, faced with the spiritual crisis, it is natural and inevitable that people will turn to religion to seek answers. However, in the past century, most societies have put limits on the role of religion in peoples’ lives, for reasons that are not hard to understand. Religious customs and institutions have too often been obstacles to science, rationality and social progress, have been the source of divisions and conflicts, and have served to legitimize unjust forms of political domination. Are the religious traditions of the past, or the various forms of religious revival we see today, able to avoid the errors of the past, to address the current spiritual crisis, and to provide the spiritual foundation of the emerging global civilization?
If religion is to play a constructive role in social development now and in the future, its concept, nature and purpose needs to be re-examined. Indeed, before the 20th century, the term zongjiao宗教 (religion) was rarely used in the Chinese language. Scholars have determined that the concept of zongjiao in its modern sense was introduced into China from the west through Japan at the turn of the 20th century. The Japanese used the word as an equivalent to the English word “religion”, which in turn has a root in the Latin word religio, which, in Roman times, referred to reverence, obligation and piety to the gods. The Western concept of religion as it is generally understood, is derived from the form of the Christian churches of 19th century Europe. According to the Western-derived concept, religion refers to a set of doctrines and rituals concerning belief in God or a supernatural being. People who believe in these doctrines are members of a single church or religious community, which is led by an organization of priests or religious specialists. Those who believe in the doctrines of one church, reject the doctrines of other religious communities. This concept of religion as it has been understood in mainstream discourse in the West, based on a specific moment in the history of society and religion in Europe, thus entered modern Chinese academic life. However, while this concept matches well with the religious structure of many forms of Christianity and Islam, it does not fit well with the realities of many parts of the world such as China, nor does it match the structure and organization of many other religious traditions. Being derived from specific historical and cultural experiences of the West, the currently prevailing concept of religion is now being questioned even in Western scholarly discussions.
However, although the concept zongjiao is relatively new in the Chinese language, the consciousness of the spiritual dimension of existence is very strong in all traditional Chinese schools of thought. In traditional China, reverence for Heaven and ancestors, temples in sacred places and shrines to worthy personages, spiritual understandings of human nature, and the importance of sacrifice, proper ceremony and benevolent and righteous social relations, were integral components of the culture, and found many different forms of expression – from the Emperor’s sacrifices to Heaven, to the common peoples’ worship of ancestors and deities, and from Daoist concepts of the Unity of Man and Heaven to Confucian teachings on “honouring Heaven” and on the moral education of the people through the cult of deities. All of these elements pervaded the culture and influenced all aspects of practical life, from family relations and health cultivation, to the art of government – however, they were not separately identified as a distinct category of “religion”. Thus, some scholars consider that a “religious dimension” or “religiousness” was central to traditional Chinese society, but it did not constitute a single system, independent from the rest of society. Others have called it a “nameless religion”. Others would hesitate to call these aspects of Chinese culture “religious”. Our purpose here is not to engage in these debates, but to stress that a restricted concept of religion, derived from the Western experience, is not suitable to fully draw insights from the Chinese and other experiences. On the other hand, there is no doubt that Chinese civilization has accumulated great wisdom on human nature and its spiritual dimension, on the nature and structure of the cosmos, and on the organization of social relations in line with conceptions of human nature and the cosmos. All of this fits within a more broadly defined concept of religion. Both the Western-derived forms and the Chinese experience described above, as well as those of other cultural and religious traditions around the world, are integral parts of the spiritual and religious heritage of humanity. At the same time, in the current context of spiritual crisis and global integration, there are limitations to both Western and Chinese traditional forms and concepts of religion. A rethinking of the concept of religion is necessary; we cannot uncritically accept the categories of the past. In this paper, we wish to raise a number of questions that, we hope, may stimulate a discourse on reconsidering the concept of religion in its relationship to society and culture.
Whether in the past or present, whether in China or abroad, people have always considered that the purpose of life lies beyond the mere satisfaction of the needs of the body, of the acquisition of money, fame and power. Each human being is, indeed, endowed with innumerable capacities—physical, intellectual and spiritual. Physical capacities make possible the proper use of the body and senses. Intellectual capacities include the power of reason and the ability to generate and apply knowledge. Spiritual capacities enable the human being to manifest attributes such as love, justice, and wisdom, to distinguish between what is morally right and wrong, to transcend the ego and to strive toward ultimate meaning and transcendence. All these capacities need to be nurtured in order to attain their full development and expression. Just as the body is strengthened through proper nutrition and exercise, and the intellect is trained through education in the arts and sciences, so too the spirit needs to be nurtured.
Lacking food and exercise, the human body withers and dies; lacking education, the intellect remains impotent; and lacking spiritual training, the heart becomes cold and selfish. But not everything that can be eaten contributes to health; spoiled food causes illness and even death. Wrong information and fallacious theories can lead the intellect to grave errors. So, too, distorted forms of religion can damage the powers of the human spirit. In times of famine, people will eat whatever they can find, even sawdust and the bark of trees. Without proper intellectual sustenance, the mind will attach itself to hollow and dangerous ideologies. Lacking proper spiritual nourishment, hungry souls will fill their needs with illusory hopes and fantasies. “Where one does not sow wheat, weeds will grow.” Thus, it is essential to nourish the human spirit, but in a manner that does not breed prejudice and fanaticism.
In this document, we will consider religion to be a continually evolving system of knowledge and practice concerned with nurturing the spiritual capacities of human beings at the level of both individual and collective life. Some of the truths it contains remain valid with the passage of time but others speak to specific historical conditions and become irrelevant as civilization advances. At any stage in its development, erroneous elements can be introduced into the system; other elements may only provide limited understandings of reality; while new insights and approaches appear from time to time, stimulating new advances in human civilization and understanding.
A basic assumption of religion is that that both the origin of the world and the nature of man transcend material reality. As an evolving system of knowledge and practice, religion provides an overarching framework for understanding relations among all beings. Religion notably seeks to define the status and role of man in the universe, setting down laws and principles regulating social and spiritual relations among men. Throughout history, religions vary in their laws, rituals and customs. Taken as a panoramic whole, however, a thread of consistence and coherence can be discerned among the spiritual messages of each of the great religious traditions of the world. Each shares a fundamental mission in educating the souls of men, promoting peace and advancement of civilization through the inculcation of principles of love and justice. Worldviews, values, and moral codes derived from the great religions of the world guide and regulate the actions of man and woman, inspiring them to translate their inner beliefs into altruistic deeds and acts of service. Seen in this light, religion can be described as a spiritual orientation to life.
Rethinking the concept of religion needs to avoid age-old theological disputes and entrenched denominational prejudices of various kinds. Rather, to be fruitful and constructive, a discourse on the nature and purpose of religion should not be handicapped by the limitations of many current social forms of religion – be they mere customs that have lost all moral force or spiritual significance, rigid theological dogmas and exclusive religious communities, or various sects and denominations entangled in social and political struggles; nor should it be taken as an institution for promoting the interests of a single ethnic group, social class, nation or political establishment. Such forms present a limited concept of religion, which is not conducive to the kind of inquiry we are undertaking in this paper. Just as the concept of Science cannot be fully encompassed by any single academic school, theory or discipline, we propose that Religion be seen as a concept that transcends any of its specific historical or cultural manifestations, and that can ever generate new insights and practices.
In tending to the spiritual nature of the human being, religion necessarily concerns itself with transcendence. Yet, this is only one dimension of religion, for it is also concerned with practical matters both at the level of the individual and society. How to organize family relationships; how to raise children; how to cultivate virtue; how to maintain physical and emotional health; how to care for the sick and the needy; how to remember the dead; how to cope with life’s difficulties; how to interact with nature; how to solve conflicts; how to attain order and justice in society—these are only a few of the practical issues addressed by religion. Indeed, while theological and philosophical questions may be at the root of the tree of religious knowledge, its branches, leaves and fruit are essentially practical teachings, inseparable from lived experience.
The starting point for any discussion on religion must be the principle of the independent search for truth. Rather than blindly following beliefs or opinions owing to tradition, habit or popularity, we each have the moral responsibility to seek after knowledge through our own eyes, and not through the eyes of others. The discourse on religion that we propose here, offers a framework for engaging in such an investigation.
In view of the current state of affairs of social and cultural development, a good starting point for our purpose would be to initiate a broad-based and prejudice-free discussion on topics such as faith and the sacred, religion as learning process, human nature, morality, science and religion, social action, community building, politics, civilization, and religious education and institutions.
Faith and the sacred
Human beings have always held certain values, beliefs, symbols or things to be sacred – things that evoke something greater than what we are, and that can inspire us to greater nobility, consciousness and virtue. According to sociological theory, the foundation of social order is common respect for the sacred. For many people nowadays, the sacred refers to certain abstract ideals, values or memories; for others, the sacred refers to a spiritual reality, to a transcendent spiritual being – which they may call Dao, Heaven, the Dharma, God, Allah, or so on. This forms the basis for religion as a perpetual historical and social phenomenon. In religion, the sacred is not an abstract idea, but a living reality, with which an active relationship can be nurtured. How can this be understood? What are the implications and effects of such a relationship?
Different religious traditions have developed different practices and understandings in their relationship with the sacred. Different individuals also have different interpretations, experiences and understandings. From one perspective, these understandings are incommensurable with each other. From another perspective, they offer different perspectives on a single reality that can ultimately never be completely understood by humans. In the latter approach, no understanding is final and complete; the experience and understandings of other individuals and traditions can always enrich one’s own. If this is established, how can a discourse on religion overcome the prejudices and barriers between different understandings and traditions? And how can such a discourse welcome skeptics, atheists and non-believers, seeing the legitimacy of their concerns and criticisms in the context of a common search for truth and exploration of the spiritual dimensions of life? A discourse on religion need not divide people on the basis of whether they understand the sacred in a religious way or not. Nor should it divide religious people on the basis of their different sacred symbols and practices; and then create rigid boundaries and identities between people of these different categories. Indeed, regardless of whether people claim a religious identity or not, questions of ultimate meaning are shared by all thinking humans, and the evidences of the sacred are pervasive in all cultures. A discourse on religion should bring together people who, regardless of their backgrounds, are interested in deepening their understanding of the sacred and of faith, in a spirit of mutual learning. Peoples’ different beliefs, opinions and questions should be respected, while giving them space to grow and evolve in their understanding.
Religious discourse as learning process
The external signs of religion are traditionally expressed in the form of temples and art, ecstatic experiences and mystical insights, forms of prayer and techniques of meditation, and collective ceremonies and festivals. While these are components of many systems of religious knowledge and practice, a discourse on religion should not limit itself to the description and comparison of the outward forms of these phenomena; nor should it nourish an obsession for the strange and miraculous. While affirming the essential subjective dimension of religious experience, a rational discourse on religion should focus on exploring core spiritual concepts and principles, which can be applied to a range of issues relating to individual life, human relationships and social structures. These include attitudes toward the purpose and challenges of life, moral and ethical guidance, how to build healthy families, the moral and spiritual education of children and youth, ways of building community and serving humanity, attitudes toward work and economic activity, promoting social development, building social justice, nurturing a harmonious environment, and establishing peace and unity. Religious teachings contain a wealth of concepts and principles that can bring insights and guidance on how to tackle these practical issues. At the same time, no religious group can claim to have already solved them, and blind imitation of past customs is no answer to the challenges we face today. A discourse on religion should seek for greater understanding of the application of spiritual insights and principles to these issues, both at the level of concepts and at the level of practice. True understanding can progress only when intellectual reasoning is combined with the experience of practice in the social realm, involving multiple people of different capacities in a collective endeavor, in a cyclical process of study, consultation, action and reflection, leading to gradual improvements. Adopting a humble posture of learning, people of different backgrounds can advance together in addressing our common concerns as human beings.
Human nature
All theories and philosophies, whether religious or not, include assumptions about human nature. Simplistic ideas about human nature are prevalent in most social theories today, reducing the human being to a single function or characteristic: that humans are motivated solely by self-interest and self-preservation; that humans are intrinsically competitive and driven by the thirst for power; that human needs can be reduced to the desire to consume, to possess, and to become richer. Such assumptions underlie much public policy and many social relationships. But have we reflected on the implications of applying such assumptions to all aspects of human life and society? Is it possible to ensure family harmony, the healthy growth of children and youth, the sustainable development of our economy, and social peace and order if we believe that human nature is incorrigibly opposed to such values? Religion does point to the self-centredness of humans, analyses its causes, and warns of its consequences – but it also posits another side to human nature. This is sometimes described as our higher self, our true self, our innate nobility, our spiritual nature. This nature is what makes humans morally different from animals. It is through virtues such as benevolence, compassion, love, justice, truthfulness and wisdom, that our spiritual nature finds expression. Both at the individual and collective levels, religion aims to nurture the noble side of human nature, inspiring people to acquire and practice such spiritual qualities as love, justice, compassion, honesty and trustworthiness. These spiritual qualities are fundamental for healthy social development in that they motivate cooperation, service, and harmony among communities, and create the right social and cultural conditions for nurturing the material and spiritual potentials of populations.
How can our spiritual nature be understood? What is its relationship with the lower, material or animal side of human nature? Is this relationship necessarily conflictual, or can the two be reconciled? How is our spiritual nature expressed in social behavior? How is it linked to peoples’ sense of purpose and meaning in life? What would a family, community, institution or society be like if its constituent relationships were based on our higher nature, rather than our lower nature? How can our spiritual nature be nurtured and strengthened? A discourse on religion should explore the insights of religious teachings, practices and experience on these questions, and seek to advance in the knowledge of what kinds of education, communities, social environments and institutions are conducive to the healthy and positive development of humans’ spiritual nature.
Morality
“Moral crisis” and “moral corruption” are a cause of great concern at all levels of society. What moral standards does our society need today? High HigHiigh moral standards and principles are central to the teachings of all major religious traditions. How, then, can religion play a role of moral guidance and example? How can self-righteousness, hypocrisy and empty preaching be avoided? How can a strong moral compass be inculcated into the next generations, and applied in all aspects of life – in individual conduct, in the family, in business and in government?
Traditionally, preaching and rituals were the main channels through which religion exerted its moral influence upon society. In rapidly changing modern societies, however, the problems encountered by the human race are of far greater complexity than in the past; these methods are of limited use for raising peoples’ moral consciousness and behavior. Today, religion needs to apply moral principles in drastically different contexts with high levels of complexity. It might be fruitful for a discourse on religion to see morality, not as a set of simple external restrictions to impose on peoples’ behavior, but as a set of capacities innate to each individual. For example, love, humility, justice and trustworthiness are virtues that each person can potentially express, but that require nurturing and exercise in order to be fully developed. A discourse on religion might then explore what are the sets of moral capacities that come into play in different social situations, and how religion can nurture these capacities among children, youth and adults. In this regard, questions to be raised include: How can moral capacities be identified, understood, and applied in today’s world? How can individuals, groups and institutions learn how to nurture and strengthen moral capacities?
Science and religion
The relationship between science and religion is one of the most entangled questions of modern times. In terms of their impact on society, science and religion, as two distinctive yet complementary systems of knowledge and practice, are powerful driving forces for social development and the progress of civilization. Indeed, throughout history, human civilization, including cultural and artistic expression, leaped to new heights of achievements whenever science and religion representing respectively the rational and spiritual faculties of the human race were allowed to work hand-in-hand.
However, the idea that science and religion are essentially in conflict with each other gradually became a predominant view of the intellectual world. In recent years, however, science and religion have started to engage in serious dialogues with one another. Until now, the dialogue between science and religion has largely taken place at an abstract level, between scientists and theologians. But if religion is to play a constructive role in the process of social transformation, its dialogue and interaction with science needs to go beyond the mere abstract and theoretical level, exploring new frontiers of collaboration in the practical arena of social development. Indeed, discussion, policies and programmes of social development have, in modern times, tended to focus exclusively on material needs, consumption and production, and on the search for scientific and technological solutions to those needs. But there is an increasing consensus that such an exclusive focus may have severely damaging consequences for the environment that we live in and for the fabric of social life. The goals and methods of social development need to take into account the moral and spiritual dimension of life. This is an area in which religion should have guidance and insights to offer. And yet, this cannot be achieved simply by increasing the number of people who adhere to religious sects, or simply by increasing the influence of religious leaders and institutions.
Instead, new questions need to be tackled. Rather than seeing science and religion as fixed and unchanging truths to be accepted or rejected, they may be seen as dynamic systems of knowledge and practice, perpetually refining themselves in the light of expanding information, experience and understanding. Like the two wings of a bird, science and religion are both essential for humanity’s flight towards prosperity. Religion will be the cause of the advancement of society only if it is in harmony with science. What is more, religion should be an active promoter of scientific progress by creating the conditions of the human mind and spirit that inspire scientific inquiry and the independent investigation of truth. Without science, religion becomes empty tradition and leads to fanaticism. Without religion, science cannot respond to the inherent longing of humankind for transcendence. Without the moral guidance provided by true religion, science can easily be used for the destruction of human happiness.
Seen in such a light, can dialogue and collaboration between science and religion lead to approaches to social development that take care of both the material and spiritual needs and capacities of man? If great scientific achievements and high degrees of spirituality are to be prominent features of the anticipated global civilization of the future, then how should science and religion interact in a constructive manner to bring such a civilization into reality?
Social Action
Religion advocates high ideals of morality, justice, and peace – social ideals that are far from being realized. Faced with the gap between ideal and reality, should we abandon our hopes? Should we take a passive attitude of doing nothing, hoping that others will make the efforts needed to improve things? Or should we act to promote positive changes in society? And if so, what are the most appropriate, constructive and sustainable forms of social action? What attitudes, qualities and capacities does the individual need in order to be an effective actor for social change? And what is the role of social action in the spiritual growth of the individual?
There is obviously a close connection between individuals and society in that the standards and behavior of individuals shape their environment and, in turn, are molded by social structures and processes. In this sense, a two-fold purpose is required for social action and social development to be effective: individuals dedicated to social reform and transformation need to nurture the growth of their own capacities and spiritual qualities, and at the same time be keenly aware of the impact their action will have upon the concepts, structures and processes of society.
Surely one cannot develop virtues and talents in isolation, but only through effort and activity for the benefit of others. With no outside interactions and social goals, one has no standard by which to judge personal progress and no concrete results by which to measure one’s development. A person forgetful of the social dimension of moral purpose is prone to subtle forms of ego -- combinations of guilt, self-righteousness, and self-satisfaction. Conversely, a sense of purpose driven only by the desire to transform society, with no attention to the need for personal growth and transformation, is easily distorted. The person who blames society for every wrong and ignores the importance of individual responsibility loses respect and compassion for others and is prone to acts of cruelty and oppression. Social transformation, if divorced from the desire to transform one’s own character, is an extremely fragile enterprise. Therefore, for any social action to be effective, individual growth and social transformation need to be seen as two complementary sides of one single process. Great care must be taken to avoid unfettered individualism and suffocating collectivism to dominate the process of social development, and to strike a subtle balance between individual initiative and collective stability.
As a rich trove of values and ideals, religion is a source of inspiration and guidance for social action. A discourse on religion should ponder the following questions: How can religion motivate people to be constructively involved in the affairs of their communities, combining spiritual growth with social transformation? If religion nurtures high level of consciousness and altruistic motivation through prayer and meditation, how can these spiritual dispositions lead to action? How to avoid the extremes of otherworldliness and asceticism? How to avoid the relationships of dependency and the sense of superiority generated by some forms of religious charity? How can spiritual ideals be transformed into social reality? How can religion nurture the capacity of populations to transform both their individual lives and their social structures?
Community building
Until recently, most people lived in a “society of familiar people” – a village or street in which family members lived close together, there was a high level of intimacy, trust and mutual help between neighbours, and children freely played in each others’ houses and in the streets. Religion was a key foundation to this social fabric, as the temple, church or mosque provided a common space for sacred worship and communal activities and celebrations, a reinforcement of common moral values, and a setting for discussing issues of mutual concern. At present, however, most people increasingly live in a “society of strangers” in which neighbours do not know each other and parents dare not let their children step outside of their own home. With greater mobility, diversity and changes of residents’ backgrounds and values, it is also very difficult for traditional forms of religion to play their social function. At the most basic level of grassroots social relationships, there is little trust, communal bonding and reciprocity. Even a cursory examination of the crime and violence that plague many of these neighborhoods, and the sterile coldness which governs the life of many others, leaves us with an uneasy feeling that humanity is somehow losing an irreplaceable element of social organization, an element that is absolutely necessary if we are to maintain the cohesion of society at large, and without which individuals become victims of social forces beyond their comprehension.
“Community building” has become an issue of increasing concern for governments, businesses, public agencies, volunteers, community organizations and families, as they consider issues of income disparity, housing, environment, transportation, civic participation, education and neighbourly relations. But in these discussions, few have asked about the relationship between these domains and the spiritual dimension of life, as well as the “ultimate purpose” of community building. What role should religion play in community building? Is it simply as a cultural relic, a thing of the past to enjoy in moments of leisure? Is it simply a refuge from the stress of modern life, or a place to pray for success in our secular pursuits? What are the types of spiritual qualities and social relationships that religion should be nurturing among the people in a community? How can its devotional activities be a source of inspiration and sacredness for all people, regardless of their religious identification or social background? How can it help to develop the moral capacities and spirit of service of children and youth in the neighbourhood? How can religion overcome millennia of patriarchy to affirm the full equality of the sexes and the equal value of women’s contributions to the family, to the education of children, to community life and to the economy? How can it provide a loving and nurturing space, enabling people to engage in meaningful conversations with their neighbours, leading to greater trust, cooperation and unity? How can religion inspire and empower residents to take initiative for acts and plans of service for the spiritual, social, and intellectual development of their community? How can it nurture the expression of spiritual qualities such as love, humility, detachment, justice and a learning attitude in consultative decision-making processes, breaking away from divisive habits of individuals and groups vying to impose their views? What would a community look like if the spiritual qualities at the core of religious teachings were applied in the areas listed above?
Politics
To the extent that the religious spirit of love, compassion and justice seeks to reduce the suffering of the world and work for the well-being of its people, it finds itself sharing its highest ideals with governments concerned for the peace, security and development of their people. It is thus natural for religion, government, and other like-minded groups to work together to advance their common goal of the welfare of humanity. At the same time, the religious spirit of love and justice cannot remain indifferent to injustice and oppression – and thus, when the structures of social, economic and political power appear to cause excessive inequalities, corruption and suffering, religious communities may be tempted to join movements of political protest or rebellion. They may themselves be tempted by worldly power; they may be used by the state to confer moral legitimacy on its authority; or they may be used by opposition parties to give moral justification for their struggle. Whatever the nature of the involvement, the outcome is that religious institutions become caught up in political conflict, subject to the ephemeral fortunes of rising and falling factions. The strong power of religion to unite people around common values, identity and organization inevitably stimulates the envy or suspicion of political forces that would be tempted to use it or resist it. Religious leaders themselves may be tempted to turn it to political or economic advantage. Thus, whether in a cooperative or antagonistic mode, religion cannot avoid the question of its relationship with politics.
This question cannot be clearly understood without an understanding of the distinctive nature of religion and the type of power that it generates. One common view of religion sees it simply as a subset of the many competing ideologies that exist in the world, which provide a set of common beliefs that can be used to mobilise people around a set of political objectives, be they those of a state, a social class, an ethnic group or any type of interest group. And, to be sure, much of what is commonly known as “religion” does represent little more than the instrumentalization of religious symbols and rituals to sacralize the identity boundaries and political and economic interests of specific social groups or political movements. Such groups are, indeed, engaged in “negotiating interests” or “contests of power”. But we suggest that, the more a community engages in the negotiations and struggles of secular power politics, the less it represents religion in the true sense of the word. Indeed, the great spiritual educators of humanity were united in their refusal to engage in secular power struggles, or in their exhortations to rulers to transcend such struggles. Laozi’s disappearance into the mountains of Kunlun conveys the message that true spiritual progress cannot be found if one is wrapped up in the struggles of this world. Sakyamuni’s abandonment of his princely palace illustrates the same truth. Confucius spent his life offering advice to rulers, but never sought to compete with them for authority. Jesus Christ is famous for his teaching to “leave unto God what is God’s and unto Caesar what is Caesar’s” and, while remaining firm in upholding his spiritual faith, he offered no resistance to the government’s decision to arrest and crucify him. If Mohammad became the leader of the peoples of Arabia, it was because, in a condition of tribal anarchy, he remained above the endless struggles of the many tribes, until they turned to him for his justice and impartiality. Baha’u’llah re-emphasized the religious injunction to obey the law and the government, and, even when they have encountered oppression, His followers have responded with love and loyalty. Abdu’l Baha stressed that if a religion were to become the cause of disunity, it would be better that there not be religion at all. To be sure, these figures did not show identical responses to political power in different social conditions and at different moments of history. But an impartial study of religious history will demonstrate that the political instrumentalization of religion, whether by or against governments, violates the essential religious spirit and wisdom, and destroys its soul.
This, then, raises a number of questions. First, how to protect religion from this fate? Second, if religion should stay clear of secular power struggles, then what should be the nature of its engagement with society? Should it advocate a passive escape from social concern? Should it limit itself to easing pain and suffering through spiritual solace and charity? How should it practice its ideals of a world of love and justice? If religion is to become a constructive force for social change, working within the framework of the law and cooperating with the government but offering a unique contribution that would be difficult to accomplish by other groups, we need to reflect on the nature of another type of power – the power of unity, of love, of humility, of good deeds, of understanding, of wisdom. This type of power is not a limited quantity that can be seized, the power of one person or institution to dominate another. Nor is it a power that challenges or opposes others. Rather, it can be potentially manifested by any and all, it can be “released”, “enabled”, “encouraged”, or “guided”; rather than fighting over it, a group of people can increase it through mutual love, guidance and encouragement. These attitudes, qualities, principles and capacities are the universal and essential attributes of religion – attributes that any community with a true religious spirit strives to put into practice. The question, then, is how religion should apply these attributes in its relationship with governments and other social groups, working together for the common purpose of the people’s prosperity, security, happiness and spiritual fulfillment? How can religion align itself with the constructive forces in society, and avoid contributing to destructive forces?
Civilization
Religion is not simply an isolated set of personal beliefs; besides the spiritual transformation of the individual, its fruit is the uplifting of the human spirit, made manifest in the prosperity of civilization. Civilization has taken different forms at different stages in the evolution of humanity. The various stages of social evolution are characterized by specific forms of material and technological culture, scientific thought, and religion. Communication technology, for example, has progressed from the delivery of oral messages on foot, to the dispatch of written letters by horse or boat, to transmission by telegraph, then by telephone, and finally by the Internet. The quantity of information and the speed with which it can be transmitted has increased exponentially. Social organization, to take another example, has expanded from families and bands of a few dozen people, to tribes and chiefdoms, to kingdoms, empires, modern states, and, today, the beginnings of a world system. Religious beliefs have also progressed from the local cults of particular social groups, to the religions of large states and empires as in Ancient China and Rome, to world religions such as Buddhism, Christianity and Islam, that have transcended the boundaries between different local cultures and nations. And, just as the planet becomes united materially through advanced communication and the advancement of knowledge, the Bahá’í Faith has appeared, advocating the oneness of humankind.
At each stage in humanity’s development, new faiths became new collective centres of consciousness, transcending the barriers between groups, creating higher levels of unity. Family rituals and ancestor worship helped people to see beyond their own personal interests and to understand the importance of family responsibilities. Tribal cults and local temples helped different families and clans to transcend their own interests and to cooperate for the well-being of their community. The imperial religions of ancient kingdoms and empires created a framework for the integration of local loyalties into a cosmopolitan order, allowing the co-existence of multiple ethnic groups and regions. Later, the teachings of the world religions led humans to believe in a universal truth, and, through a common faith and concern for all of humanity, to transcend the boundaries of ethnic groups and empires. Their moral teachings, which urge high thoughts upon the mind and refine the human character, had an uplifting influence on society. Their temples, churches and mosques became centres of community life, culture and charity, and nurtured the flourishing of poetry, art, music, and architecture. Their schools for the study of scriptures and for the training of clergy became centres of learning, of the exchange of ideas and diffusion of philosophy and scientific knowledge. Their institutions became models for the organization of government, education, and philanthropy. The power of their virtues raised the people to higher levels of both material and spiritual civilization: weak nations became strong; unknown, warring tribes created mighty and powerful civilizations; captive peoples were elevated to sovereignty; ignorance was transformed into knowledge; and humanity advanced in all degrees of development.
The collective development of humanity may be likened to the organic process of the maturation of an individual through infancy, childhood, adolescence, youth and maturity. Primitive society and its religious practices belong to humanity’s infancy— total dependence on natural forces and little distinction between the material world and the dream-like mythical world of imagination. Feudal society could be considered the stage of collective childhood, in which social relationships usually reflect an authoritarian patriarchal structure, where the emperor, for example, is regarded as the father of the people. Religion in such a society tends to express a similar pattern of relationship with the divine. Modern society acts much like the adolescent, who seeks to assert his autonomy and break out of the fetters of traditional parental authority. While his physical body is fully developed, the adolescent is emotionally and intellectually immature. The period of collective adolescence is consequently characterized by turbulence, rebellion against established authority and swinging from one extreme to the other. Under such circumstances, the innate human desire for justice, freedom and security, manifests itself in scattered and contradictory ways: in persistent struggles to destroy outdated religious forms and social structures; in fundamentalist attempts to return to the original purity of religion or ideology; in the fanatical worship of charismatic idols; and in the rejection of traditional moral standards by excessive attention to the body and its pleasures.
During adulthood, the individual attains a synthesis and a unity of all the differentiated abilities acquired during the previous stages. Emotional, spiritual and intellectual powers reach their full development. Morality is enhanced by a mature understanding of human interdependence. Care for others, beginning with one’s spouse, children and parents, and offering service to the community and the human race, becomes a core concern. Similarly, during its stage of maturity, humanity becomes integrated into a single global society, capable of harnessing the powers of science, technology and economy for the well-being of all its members.
As humanity enters this new stage of development, we can, for the first time, holistically survey and evaluate its accumulated religious experience. Some ideas and practices that may have been beneficial at an earlier stage of history, are positively unhealthy or dangerous in our collective transition to maturity. Some can be cherished and honoured as valuable gems of our cultural heritage even though, today, they are little more than harmless and colourful traditions. And some are pearls of wisdom that can contribute to the emergence of the patterns of thinking and action characteristic of a mature society.
There are many views about the role of religion in the future of humanity. One view, common in Western thought since the 19th century, has been that the sign of human progress is the decline and ultimate disappearance of religion. This view has been challenged by the persistence and even resurgence of religion in most parts of the world, including modern, well educated and scientifically advanced societies. It has also been challenged by the failure of the Western secular model’s alternative to religion: the glorification of greed, the frenetic pursuit of material wealth, and the elevation of personal freedom to the supreme value – a value that, for most people, finds expression primarily through a culture of unfettered consumption.
A number of alternatives have been proposed to the crisis of secularism. One response has been to admit that religion will continue to exist, but that it is merely an expression of the dominant consumer culture: religion is the “product” of religious “firms” that are “consumed” by people to satisfy their spiritual needs. There is no doubt that many organizations and businesses do try to use business models, consciously or not, to produce and propagate religion. But if religion is reduced to the satisfaction of personal desires, comparable to a consumer product, it is limited in its capacity to inspire people to transcend their ego and personal desires, to arise in service to humanity, and to provide a strong moral and social foundation for civilization. Another response has been to attempt a reversion to the imagined purity of antiquity or of the early religious community at the time of the Prophet. But models of religion derived from the time of humanity’s collective childhood, when rigidly applied today, usually have highly destructive effects. The question, then, is not to exterminate religion; nor to turn religion into the plaything of our desires; nor to return to the religion of the past: as humanity enters a new phase of civilization, it needs a new model of religion.
What kind of religion should this be? In order to answer this question, we need to reflect on the meaning of “civilization” and its implications for the past, present and future. What is at the heart of civilization? Is civilization to be measured by the height of buildings, the number of cars and the price of brand-name fashions? What are the spiritual qualities, attitudes and capacities that are the hallmarks of true civilization? What kinds of morality and social relationships are the signs of a mature humanity? How can these find expression in human creativity, leading to ever greater accomplishments in the realms of culture, art, science, technology and economy? Are these qualities the sole property of a single nation or religious tradition, so that the answer to the current crisis can only be found through a “clash of civilizations” or a “competition of religions”? Are they not the common aspiration of people of all cultures and faiths?
How, then, can we draw on the unique experiences and insights of each of the world’s great cultural and religious traditions, transcending their differences, working together to put our common aspirations into practice? The unification of the planet, and the global nature of the crises that humanity has inflicted on itself, lead us to the realization that such a search is not a matter of choice but of necessity. The ability to engage in such a common discourse, studying and discussing concepts, exploring their application in society and reflecting on their results, gradually increasing in understanding and capacity, a process conducted in a humble spirit of learning, may, perhaps, be one of the characteristics of the religious spirit of a maturing humanity.
Religious education and institutions
There are no simple answers to all of the questions we have raised in this paper. Much experimentation, reflection and discussion will be needed, among people of different backgrounds and in different social contexts, for a clear understanding of these issues to emerge. This is a process of gradual knowledge generation and application, through study, reflection, action and consultation. It is a process of learning, which calls for a rethinking of the concept of religious education. Indeed, religious education as we mean it here, cannot be limited to the transmission of tradition, to the indoctrination of dogma, to the instilling of sectarian identity or, even less, to the instigation of prejudice. Seen in this light, religious education cannot place undue emphasis on personal salvation and cannot cultivate feelings of superiority over others. Rather, qualities such as integrity, honesty, trustworthiness, generosity and patience need to be developed through service to humanity, independent of peoples’ acceptance or rejection of a religion. Only by training in this capacity of service can religious education in this age help the individual to pursue a twofold moral purpose of personal and social transformation, without cultivating self-centeredness and self-righteousness. Education in moral excellence must nurture humility and not vainglory and self-praise.
How can this learning process be organized in a systematic and progressive fashion? How can scriptural study be integrated with personal and social practice? How can spiritual qualities be trained progressively through acts of service of increasing complexity? What are the knowledge, attitudes and skills required for the application of spiritual principles in the different areas discussed in this paper? If religious knowledge is evolutionary; if it derives as much from social practice as it does from the study of scriptures; and if spiritual insights can be gained as much through mutual discussion as through individual reflection, then how should we understand the role of the more experienced persons who facilitate and accompany those who are on a path of learning and service? How would this differ from traditional forms of religious teaching and study?
Anyone can, of their own initiative, engage in the process of learning, practice and knowledge generation that we describe in these pages. But the results of dispersed discussions and acts will always be limited. For such a process to advance in a systematic fashion, leading to the sharing and improvement of collective knowledge and experience for an entire community, requires a system of communication and coordination. Such is, we suggest, the role of religious institutions.
Such a system involves methods for continually developing and expanding the learning process – generating, collecting and disseminating an ever growing body of knowledge and experience, making it available to ever broader segments of society and applying it to ever more complex issues. It involves mechanisms for involving growing numbers of people and developing their capacities to serve and contribute in different roles. It is around such people, who study and learn together, who consult on how to advance and apply the learning process, that a dynamic religious community can come into being. The essential role of a religious institution should be to guide and facilitate the growth of such a community, to constructively channel the energies of those who seek to improve themselves and to build a better world, learning to apply spiritual principles to exert a positive influence on the welfare of humankind, to promote education, peace and global prosperity, and to safeguard human honour and the position of religion.
At the same time, the religious institution needs to protect this emergent process -- from the ambitions of individuals who may try to control it for their personal power or aggrandizement; from the division triggered by attempts by some individuals or groups to impose their opinions on others; from the temptation of involvement in political struggles; from being dragged into local prejudices and conflicts; and from unhealthy social influences, habits and trends that violate the core spiritual principles of religion. Within this framework, religious authority might be measured by the capacity of an institution to protect religion from these dangers – rather than, as is often current today, the length of its history, the magnificence of its rituals and priestly costumes, the number of followers it commands, or the charisma of its leader. Rather than an instrument for the control or domination of believers, and more than an association of people sharing the same beliefs, a religious institution should be a channel of the spirit, nurturing and releasing the spiritual capacities of the people, unifying and coordinating their efforts to build the foundations of a true global civilization.
In this document, we have proposed a framework for a discourse on religion that has raised a number of questions that we feel need further reflection, as part of a modest contribution to the discussions on religion that are taking place in various quarters of society. This framework remains tentative and open. We sincerely hope that the perspectives and observations contained in the framework will be of interest to individuals from various circles of life, and that our understanding of religion and its relations with society and culture will be expanded and deepened as a result of continued discussions on related themes to help unite the minds and hearts of the people, which in turn will serve as a catalyst for the development of our society.
‘Abdu’l-Bahá has said: “China has most great capability. The Chinese people are most pure hearted and truth seeking…China is the country of the future.” We earnestly desire for the citizens of China to tread the path of prosperity and make a unique contribution to the advancement of world civilization, thus realizing the ideal “great harmony” for which their ancient sages yearned.
APPENDIX – How this document was drafted.
The Institute for Global Civilization (IGC) was established in Hong Kong in 2007 with a mission to engage in the discourse on the role of religion in society. In June 2012, IGC organized an informal meeting, inviting a group of scholars from various regions of China to reconsider the concept of religion from the perspectives of Baha’i concepts and of Chinese culture and history. Participants of this meeting came from a wide range of academic backgrounds, including Anthropology, Religious Studies, Education, Law, Linguistics, Arts, Gender Studies, Drama, and Hermeneutics. The main agenda of the two-day meeting was to study the document Science, Religion and Development: Some Initial Considerations, written and published by the Institute for Studies on Global Prosperity (ISGP), a development research and consultancy organization operating under the guidance of the Universal House of Justice. Apart from this document, the meeting also studied ideas and methods for participating in the discourses of society, a line of action of Baha’is around the world. Through group discussion and consultation, participants gained a new understanding of such basic concepts as religion, spiritual principles and social discourse. At the end of the meeting, each participant was asked to write a few short paragraphs about religion, based on the understanding that each reached during the meeting. The written materials thus collected contained a rich array of perspectives, which were then incorporated and synthesized into an article of about one thousand words. This formed our first draft of a statement on the nature and role of religion, called Re-examining the Concept of Religion: Some Initial Considerations.
For the next year, IGC held a series of workshops in various cities to discuss the ideas contained in the first draft, engaging scholars from many other disciplines, such as National Studies, Marxist Theory, Economics, International Relations, Ancient Greek history, Art history, English Language and Literature, etc. Participants came from a variety of religious backgrounds including atheism, Baha’i, Confucianism, Christianity, Buddhism, Daoism and Islam. The occupational backgrounds of these new participants in the discourse were equally diverse, ranging from college teachers, business managers and free-lance writers and artists, to sales persons, clerks and college students. In order to help participants expand their horizon, the workshop organized a series of study sessions. Materials used for studies in these sessions fall into three types：passages on the relationship between religion and civilization from The Secret of Divine Civilization by Abdu’l-Baha; publications touching upon the concept and methodology of discourse, i.e. A Discourse on Social Action and The Lab, the Temple and the Market; and influential intellectual works in the Chinese speaking world, mainly From the Soil: the Foundations of Chinese Society and A Declaration on Chinese Culture. Studies of these materials stimulated and inspired participants to articulate many ideas about how to improve the first draft.
IGC collected, studied and incorporated these ideas into the first draft. As the process of revision and rewriting continued, the document kept growing in length. By the end of September 2013, it had evolved into a framework for discussing the nature of religion and its relations with society and culture. This draft was presented at the Conference on Religion and Sustainable Communities held in Macau on 20-22, October, 2013, and was discussed at 6 new workshops conducted immediately after the Conference in a number of cities (Bejing, Shanghai ,Guangzhou, Zhuhai, Sanya). The present version of this paper incorporates suggestions and feedback from these sessions and workshops as of October 2014.